Introduction to Conjunctions

This lexicon illustrates various conjunctions, words like dóó (and), doodaii (or), ndi (but), háálá (because), and others. Conjunctions combine two or more sentences or phrases into a single sentence or phrase. Each conjunction has its own meaning.

This lexicon is mainly focused on coordination, but it includes other expressions that can connect two sentences (like yę́ędą́ą́’). It is sometimes difficult to distinguish conjunctions from adverbs, and it is sometimes difficult to distinguish coordination from subordination.

Sometimes adverbs appear with conjunctions, and they influence the meaning of the conjunction.

Coordination is a kind of syntactic structure that allows two similar constituents to act as one. For example, Joe and Louise are conjoined in the sentence below:

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(1)
Joe dóó Louise hataał.
Joe and Louise 3-sing.CI
Joe and Louise are singing.

The verb hataał is intransitive, meaning that it can have only one argument:

(2)
Joe hataał.
Joe 3-sing.CI
Joe is singing.
(3)
*Joe Louise hataał.
Joe Louise 3-sing.CI
Joe Louise is singing.

Example (3) is only grammatical if Joe Louise is the name of a particular person. If we take the two names to refer to two different people, the sentence does not make sense because the verb is intransitive. Coordination, used in (1), allows two or more phrases to act as one.

In Navajo, more than two phrases can be conjoined, but the verb will need to have a plural marker in it when three or more actors are involved in the event being described:

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(4)
Joe dóó Louise dóó Kii dahataał.
Joe and Louise and Kii pl-3-sing.CI
Joe, Louise, and Kii are singing.

The examples above include conjunctions of noun phrases. Other phrases can be conjoined in the same way. Here are examples with postpositional enclitic phrases:

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(5)
Tsé’áándę́ę́’ dóó tsédáajį’ ninish’na’.
cave-from and cliff-to 1-crawl.P
I crawled out of the cave and to the edge of the cliff.

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(6)
Na’ná’á biyaa góne’ dóó báhátis ’adiłt’oh.
bridge 3-under below and 3-across 3-3-shoot.P
S/he shot them (e.g., arrows) over the bridge and under it.

Sentences can also be coordinated, and several different conjunctions can be used:

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(7)
Kin Łánídi naashnish háálá ’áadi shaghan.
Flagstaff 1-work.I because there 1-live.NI
I work in Flagstaff because I live there.

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(8)
Kin bighą́ą́’dę́ę́’ hadah ’adzííłhaal ndi t’áadoo ’ádadénih da.
house 3-to-from down 1-tumble.P but NEG RFLX-1-hurt.P NEG
I tumbled off the housetop but I didn’t get hurt.

The table below shows the expressions in this lexicon, except that the complementizer -go is listed in the Adverbs lexicon [link].

Navajo English Is the expression a coordinating conjunction? categories that can be conjoined
dóó ‘and’/‘and then’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP
’áádóó ‘and then’ yes clause
’áko ‘so, so that, so then’ yes clause
’áko ’índa ‘when, then’ yes clause
’áko ndi ‘even so, even then’ yes clause
’áko shį́į́ ‘then maybe/ then probably’ yes clause
’áko shį́į́ ’índa ‘then only’ yes clause
doodago ‘or’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP?
doodaii’ ‘or’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP?
-go no clause, NP
háálá ‘for, because’ yes clause
-ii’ ‘and, and thereupon’ yes clause
’índa ‘and only then’ no clause
léi’ ‘because’, ‘inasmuch as’ or ‘in view of the fact that’ yes clause
ndi ‘but’ yes clause
’azhą́…ndi ‘even though, despite the fact that, notwithstanding’ yes (or else ’azhą́ is an adverb and ndi is a conjunction) clause
ńt’éé’ past maybe clause
yę́ędą́ą́’ past no clause
NP
noun phrase
PP
postpositional phrase
EP
postpositional enclitic phrase

Subordination is a different way that two sentences can be combined into one. The enclitic -go attached to the first sentence subordinates it to the second:

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(9)
Shilééchąą’í bił na’nishkaadgo jooł bá ’abíńjíshhałgo yikéé’ náádiilwo’.
1-dog 3-with 1-herd.CI ball 3-for 3-1-bat.R-GO 3-after 3-run.R
When I’m out herding with my dog I bat fly balls for him and he chases them.

The first clause modifies the second by describing its reference time. A range of interpretations for -go is possible. In the following example, the -go clause is understood as describing the cause for the main clause:

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(10)
’Ádihodideesht’ih sha’shin nisingo t’áadoo ’atah haasdzíi’ da.
Joe dóó Louise dóó Kii dahataał.
I didn’t say anything because I thought I might get myself into trouble.

Examples of clauses subordinated using -go can be found in the Adverbs lexicon [link].

Some observations

Our understanding is that -go is a complementizer, sometimes called subordinating conjunction in traditional grammar (we follow Schauber 1975 [link] in concluding this).

When clauses are coordinated, a conjunction appears in place of -go. Ńt’éé’ can also take the place of -go. We take it that it can be either a conjunction or a complementizer. (Occasionally, it can appear along with -go, suggesting that it could be an adverb as well!)

Some of the expressions in this lexicon can only appear when -go appears on the first clause. These expressions are likely to be adverbs.

Concerning ’azhą́…ndi, we have already concluded that ndi is a conjunction. We could analyze ’azhą́ as an adverb, or we could consider ’azhą́…ndi to be a two-part conjunction, similar to either…or.

An example search has returned 50 entries

’Ahbínídą́ą́’ t’áadoo ’ííyą́ą́’góó biniinaa wónáásdóó dichin shi’niiłhį́.

morning-past NEG 1-eat.P-NEG.GO because soon hunger 1-3-kill.P

’Aná’ázt’i’ ńtłóo’go biniinaa béégashii t’óó yigháńdaakah.

fence 3-loose.P-GO 3-because.of cow just 3-through-pl-3-go.pl.P
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Because the fence is slack (loose), the cows go right through it.

’Atsiniltł’ish dóó tó dayókeedígíí baa ’áłah ’aleeh lá.

electricity and water pl-3-request.I-NOM 3-for meeting DISC

’Ałk’idą́ą́’ Diné bikéyah bikáa’gi łį́į́’ bichąą bíighahgo tł’oh deíl’áá ńt’éé’ jiní.

long.ago Navajo.land 3-upon-at horse 3-belly sufficient-GO Pl-3-extend.out.of.sight.SNP hearsay

-ch’į’

-tsi

At’ééd na’abąąs yíhooł’ą́ą’go bimá yił ’oołbąs.

girl driving 3-3-learn.P-GO 3-mother 3-with 3-drive.Prog

bik’ídazhdeezdiz

pl-3DO-4dpl-wrap.it.around.it.P

bik’ídédiz

3DO-1-wrap.it.around.it.P

Bilagáana ła’ níhit’ááh dookah jiní.

Anglo some 1Pl-close.to 3-go.Pl.F 4-say.NI
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It is said that some white people will move in with us.

Ch’óóshdą́ą́dą́ą́’ Bilagáanaa Bizaad doo diists’a’ da. K’ad ’éí t’áá shxǫǫ t’áá bee yáshti’.

formerly English neg 1-understand.I neg. Now TOP good.thing barely 3.with 1.speak-I

Chidí bitiin ’ałts’ą́ą́hjí ’ańt’i’.

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There’s a fence on both sides of the highway.

dadidiilyįh

pl-3DO-1dpl-melt.it.F

Dibé tóógóó dínóshkaad.

sheep water-toward 3-1-start.herd.O

Dibé tóógóó neeshkał.

sheep water-toward 3-1-herd.Prog

dididiiljah

3DO-1dpl-start.fire.F

dididííłjah

3DO-2-start.fire.F

Díidí háísh bichidí?

this who-Q 3-car

Díigi ’át’éego yigááł.

this-similar.to 3-walk.Prog
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This is the way he walks.

Díigi ’át’éegoósh ’ájiił’įįh?

this-at 3-be-GO-Q SUP-4-do.P

Díkwíí shą’ ninááhai?

how.many-Q 2-winter.NI

Díkwíísh ninááhai?

how.many-Q 2-winter.NI

Doo b bééhózin da ya’?

neg 3-with 3-know.CI neg Q

ha’át’íí

Ha’át’íí lá hastiin dóó ’at’ééd ’áyiilaa?

what Q man and girl 3-3-make.P
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What did the man and the girl make?

Ha’át’íísh nizhé’é nahideeshnih nízin.

what-Q 2-father 3-1-buy.F 3-want.NI

hadínóołchał

3DO-2dpl-card.it.(as.in.wool).F

Haidą́ą́’ ’a’áán góne’ nishishnish ńt’éé’ --- doo sh yá’áhoot’éeh da.

winter-past mine.shaft 1-work.P past neg 1-with 3-good.N neg

hainiłchaad

3DO-3-card.it.(as.in.wool).I

haniłgéésh

3DO-2-cut.it.out.I

Hái da shą’ tsinaa’eeł ’ájiilaa lá?

who DA Q boat 3-4-make.P DISC

Hooghan binááshwoł ńt’éé shimá sání shich’ahóóshkeed.

hogan 3-encircling-1-run.Prog past 1-grandmother 1-3-scold.P

Hoozdo hoolyéedi deesdoi sha’shin. ’Áyaańda (’áyąą) diné bi’éétsoh t’áá gééd ndaakai.

Phoenix areal-called-at hot possibly no.wonder person 3-coat without pl-3-go.pl.P
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I guess it’s warm in Phoenix. No wonder people go around without coats.

jííyą́ą́’

3DO-4-eat.it.P

k’adę́ę lágo

nideiskáá’

pl-3DO-3dpl-investigate.it.P

nisoołkáá’

3DO-2dpl-investigate.it.P

niłbéézh

3DO-2-boil.it.I

Níká ’adeeshwoł biniiyé níyá.

2-for 1-run.F 3-purpose.of 1-came.P

Obi-Wan Kenobi, shíká ’ajoolwod.

Obi-Wan Kenobi 1-after indef-4-run.P

Shi’éé’ kin bikáá’dóó hadah (or bidah, ’adah) ’ahé’ah.

1-clothes house 3-on-from areal-downward 3-1-toss.FFO.P

Shilééchąą’í yázhí shikéé’ yildlosh ńt’éé’ hashtł’ish yiih yildloozh.

1-dog little 1-behind 3-walk.Prog past mud 3-into 3-walk.P

Shimá sání t’áá shídin ’ííyá.

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My grandmother went away without me.

Shí Kinłánígóó shił ayóó ánízaad ’ako ndi sitsoi éí bił ayídi.

I Denver to 1-with 3-far.NI but 1-grandsongranddaughter 3-with nearby

Tsé taah héjaa’go tó ńlínígíí bikáá’ ha’naa shił ni’ílwod.

stone water-into 3-1-put-.P-GO stream 3-on area-across 1-with 3-run.P
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Putting stones into the water, I drove across the stream.

Tsinaabąąs bee nida’abąąs yę́ędą́ą́’ shi’dizhchį́.

wagon 3-with pl-3-drive.I past 1-pass-born.P

woo’aal

3DO-2dpl-chew.it.P

yik’íididoodis

3DO-3-wrap.it.around.it.F

yishbéézh

3DO-1-boil.it.I

Yiską́ągo daats’í doodaii’ naakiiską́ągo daats’í dah dideeshááł.

tomorrow.GO maybe either two.tomorrow-GO or start.off 1-start.go.F