Introduction to Conjunctions
This lexicon illustrates various conjunctions, words like dóó (and), doodaii (or), ndi (but), háálá (because), and others. Conjunctions combine two or more sentences or phrases into a single sentence or phrase. Each conjunction has its own meaning.
This lexicon is mainly focused on coordination, but it includes other expressions that can connect two sentences (like yę́ędą́ą́’). It is sometimes difficult to distinguish conjunctions from adverbs, and it is sometimes difficult to distinguish coordination from subordination.
Sometimes adverbs appear with conjunctions, and they influence the meaning of the conjunction.
Coordination is a kind of syntactic structure that allows two similar constituents to act as one. For example, Joe and Louise are conjoined in the sentence below:
The verb hataał is intransitive, meaning that it can have only one argument:
Joe | hataał. |
Joe | 3-sing.CI |
Joe is singing. |
*Joe | Louise | hataał. |
Joe | Louise | 3-sing.CI |
Joe Louise is singing. |
Example (3) is only grammatical if Joe Louise is the name of a particular person. If we take the two names to refer to two different people, the sentence does not make sense because the verb is intransitive. Coordination, used in (1), allows two or more phrases to act as one.
In Navajo, more than two phrases can be conjoined, but the verb will need to have a plural marker in it when three or more actors are involved in the event being described:
Joe | dóó | Louise | dóó | Kii | dahataał. |
Joe | and | Louise | and | Kii | pl-3-sing.CI |
Joe, Louise, and Kii are singing. |
The examples above include conjunctions of noun phrases. Other phrases can be conjoined in the same way. Here are examples with postpositional enclitic phrases:
Tsé’áándę́ę́’ | dóó | tsédáajį’ | ninish’na’. |
cave-from | and | cliff-to | 1-crawl.P |
I crawled out of the cave and to the edge of the cliff. |
Na’ná’á | biyaa | góne’ | dóó | báhátis | ’adiłt’oh. | |
bridge | 3-under | below | and | 3-across | 3-3-shoot.P | |
S/he shot them (e.g., arrows) over the bridge and under it. |
Sentences can also be coordinated, and several different conjunctions can be used:
Kin | Łánídi | naashnish | háálá | ’áadi | shaghan. |
Flagstaff | 1-work.I | because | there | 1-live.NI | |
I work in Flagstaff because I live there. |
Kin | bighą́ą́’dę́ę́’ | hadah | ’adzííłhaal | ndi | t’áadoo | ’ádadénih | da. |
house | 3-to-from | down | 1-tumble.P | but | NEG | RFLX-1-hurt.P | NEG |
I tumbled off the housetop but I didn’t get hurt. |
The table below shows the expressions in this lexicon, except that the complementizer -go is listed in the Adverbs lexicon [link].
Navajo | English | Is the expression a coordinating conjunction? | categories that can be conjoined |
---|---|---|---|
dóó | ‘and’/‘and then’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP |
’áádóó | ‘and then’ | yes | clause |
’áko | ‘so, so that, so then’ | yes | clause |
’áko ’índa | ‘when, then’ | yes | clause |
’áko ndi | ‘even so, even then’ | yes | clause |
’áko shį́į́ | ‘then maybe/ then probably’ | yes | clause |
’áko shį́į́ ’índa | ‘then only’ | yes | clause |
doodago | ‘or’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP? |
doodaii’ | ‘or’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP? |
-go | no | clause, NP | |
háálá | ‘for, because’ | yes | clause |
-ii’ | ‘and, and thereupon’ | yes | clause |
’índa | ‘and only then’ | no | clause |
léi’ | ‘because’, ‘inasmuch as’ or ‘in view of the fact that’ | yes | clause |
ndi | ‘but’ | yes | clause |
’azhą́…ndi | ‘even though, despite the fact that, notwithstanding’ | yes (or else ’azhą́ is an adverb and ndi is a conjunction) | clause |
ńt’éé’ | past | maybe | clause |
yę́ędą́ą́’ | past | no | clause |
- NP
- noun phrase
- PP
- postpositional phrase
- EP
- postpositional enclitic phrase
Subordination is a different way that two sentences can be combined into one. The enclitic -go attached to the first sentence subordinates it to the second:
Shilééchąą’í | bił | na’nishkaadgo | jooł | bá | ’abíńjíshhałgo | yikéé’ | náádiilwo’. |
1-dog | 3-with | 1-herd.CI | ball | 3-for | 3-1-bat.R-GO | 3-after | 3-run.R |
When I’m out herding with my dog I bat fly balls for him and he chases them. |
The first clause modifies the second by describing its reference time. A range of interpretations for -go is possible. In the following example, the -go clause is understood as describing the cause for the main clause:
’Ádihodideesht’ih | sha’shin | nisingo | t’áadoo | ’atah | haasdzíi’ | da. |
Joe | dóó | Louise | dóó | Kii | dahataał. | |
I didn’t say anything because I thought I might get myself into trouble. |
Examples of clauses subordinated using -go can be found in the Adverbs lexicon [link].
Some observations
Our understanding is that -go is a complementizer, sometimes called subordinating conjunction in traditional grammar (we follow Schauber 1975 [link] in concluding this).
When clauses are coordinated, a conjunction appears in place of -go. Ńt’éé’ can also take the place of -go. We take it that it can be either a conjunction or a complementizer. (Occasionally, it can appear along with -go, suggesting that it could be an adverb as well!)
Some of the expressions in this lexicon can only appear when -go appears on the first clause. These expressions are likely to be adverbs.
Concerning ’azhą́…ndi, we have already concluded that ndi is a conjunction. We could analyze ’azhą́ as an adverb, or we could consider ’azhą́…ndi to be a two-part conjunction, similar to either…or.
An example search has returned 50 entries
’Ahbínídą́ą́’ t’áadoo ’ííyą́ą́’góó biniinaa wónáásdóó dichin shi’niiłhį́.
morning-past NEG 1-eat.P-NEG.GO because soon hunger 1-3-kill.PBecause I did not eat this morning I am hungry now.
bookmark- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ’ashą́ eatfind in Navajo Verb Modes
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- sisxé killfind in Navajo Verb Modes
- ’ahbínídą́ą́’ this morningfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- -niinaa because of, on account offind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
’Aná’ázt’i’ ńtłóo’go biniinaa béégashii t’óó yigháńdaakah.
fence 3-loose.P-GO 3-because.of cow just 3-through-pl-3-go.pl.P’Atsiniltł’ish dóó tó dayókeedígíí baa ’áłah ’aleeh lá.
electricity and water pl-3-request.I-NOM 3-for meeting DISC’Ałk’idą́ą́’ Diné bikéyah bikáa’gi łį́į́’ bichąą bíighahgo tł’oh deíl’áá ńt’éé’ jiní.
long.ago Navajo.land 3-upon-at horse 3-belly sufficient-GO Pl-3-extend.out.of.sight.SNP hearsay-ch’į’
At’ééd na’abąąs yíhooł’ą́ą’go bimá yił ’oołbąs.
girl driving 3-3-learn.P-GO 3-mother 3-with 3-drive.Progbik’ídazhdeezdiz
pl-3DO-4dpl-wrap.it.around.it.PBilagáana ła’ níhit’ááh dookah jiní.
Anglo some 1Pl-close.to 3-go.Pl.F 4-say.NICh’óóshdą́ą́dą́ą́’ Bilagáanaa Bizaad doo diists’a’ da. K’ad ’éí t’áá shxǫǫ t’áá bee yáshti’.
formerly English neg 1-understand.I neg. Now TOP good.thing barely 3.with 1.speak-IBefore, I didn’t understand English. Now, thankfully, I can speak some.
bookmark- Imperfective (I) (∅, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- diists’a hear, understandfind in Navajo Verb Modes
- Imperfective (I) (∅, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- yáshti’ speakfind in Navajo Verb Modes
- ch’óóshdą́ą́dą́ą́’ formerly, originallyfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- -ee by means offind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- instrumental
Chidí bitiin ’ałts’ą́ą́hjí ’ańt’i’.
dadidiilyįh
pl-3DO-1dpl-melt.it.FDibé tóógóó dínóshkaad.
sheep water-toward 3-1-start.herd.ODibé tóógóó neeshkał.
sheep water-toward 3-1-herd.Progdididiiljah
3DO-1dpl-start.fire.FDíidí háísh bichidí?
this who-Q 3-carDíigi ’át’éegoósh ’ájiił’įįh?
this-at 3-be-GO-Q SUP-4-do.PDíkwíí shą’ ninááhai?
how.many-Q 2-winter.NIDíkwíísh ninááhai?
how.many-Q 2-winter.NIDoo bił bééhózin da ya’?
neg 3-with 3-know.CI neg Qha’át’íí
Ha’át’íí lá hastiin dóó ’at’ééd ’áyiilaa?
what Q man and girl 3-3-make.PHa’át’íísh nizhé’é nahideeshnih nízin.
what-Q 2-father 3-1-buy.F 3-want.NIHaidą́ą́’ ’a’áán góne’ nishishnish ńt’éé’ --- doo shił yá’áhoot’éeh da.
winter-past mine.shaft 1-work.P past neg 1-with 3-good.N negI worked in the mine (shaft) last year and I didn’t like it.
bookmark- -dą́ą́’ past timefind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- -ne’ behindfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- naashnish workfind in Navajo Verb Modes
- -ił withfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- ńt’éé’ relates to past timefind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- doo --- da frame to negativize verbs and phrasesfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
hainiłchaad
3DO-3-card.it.(as.in.wool).Ihaniłgéésh
3DO-2-cut.it.out.IHái da shą’ tsinaa’eeł ’ájiilaa lá?
who DA Q boat 3-4-make.P DISCHooghan binááshwoł ńt’éé shimá sání shich’ahóóshkeed.
hogan 3-encircling-1-run.Prog past 1-grandmother 1-3-scold.PI was running around the hooghan when my grandmother got after me.
bookmark- Progressive (Prog)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- binááshwoł run aroundfind in Navajo Verb Modes
- ńt’éé’ relates to past timefind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- hoshishkeeh scoldfind in Navajo Verb Modes
- -ch’a scoldfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
Hoozdo hoolyéedi deesdoi sha’shin. ’Áyaańda (’áyąą) diné bi’éétsoh t’áá gééd ndaakai.
Phoenix areal-called-at hot possibly no.wonder person 3-coat without pl-3-go.pl.Pjííyą́ą́’
3DO-4-eat.it.Pnideiskáá’
pl-3DO-3dpl-investigate.it.Pnisoołkáá’
3DO-2dpl-investigate.it.Pniłbéézh
3DO-2-boil.it.INíká ’adeeshwoł biniiyé níyá.
2-for 1-run.F 3-purpose.of 1-came.PI came to help you.
bookmark- -ká after, forfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- Future (F)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- yishwoł run alongfind in Navajo Verb Modes
- -niiyé for the purpose of, tofind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- nishááh come, arrivefind in Navajo Verb Modes
Obi-Wan Kenobi, shíká ’ajoolwod.
Obi-Wan Kenobi 1-after indef-4-run.PShi’éé’ kin bikáá’dóó hadah (or bidah, ’adah) ’ahé’ah.
1-clothes house 3-on-from areal-downward 3-1-toss.FFO.PI dropped my clothes down one after another from the top of the house.
bookmark- ’adah downward from a heightfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- -káá’ on, on top offind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- location
- -dóó from a specific location or point in space or timefind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ’ahish’áád toss awayfind in Navajo Verb Modes
Shilééchąą’í yázhí shikéé’ yildlosh ńt’éé’ hashtł’ish yiih yildloozh.
1-dog little 1-behind 3-walk.Prog past mud 3-into 3-walk.PShí Kinłánígóó shił ayóó ánízaad ’ako ndi sitsoi éí bił ayídi.
I Denver to 1-with 3-far.NI but 1-grandsongranddaughter 3-with nearbyDenver is too far with me but to my grandson, it is close or nearby.
bookmark- -ił withfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- ’ayóigo very, extremelyfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- -á for, for the benefit offind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- -á for, for the benefit offind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- -ił withfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- -di atfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon